It is well known that sociality and interpersonal relationships are important for happiness and well-being, supported by considerable empirical research. When we bring into consideration how one's membership in a minority group can have an impact on relationships, it would be obvious that relationships with others and achievement or relational goods will suffer if one is a woman interacting with a sexist person or working in a sexist corporation or institution, or if one is a dark-skinned person interacting with a racist person or working in a racist corporation or institution. However, if one is a member of an "invisible" minority, such as homosexual persons, one faces the decision of whether to be open about this, or to "pass" as heterosexual and thereby possibly avoid negative consequences should the persons one is interacting with have negative views of homosexuals.  This paper will consider how being a member of an invisible minority such as homosexual or gay people has an impact on sociality and relational goods.

            The areas on which it will focus include:  self-esteem and relational goods; workplace issues such as choice of occupation,  place of employment and relationships with coworkers; marriage as an important personal relationship highly correlated with life satisfaction; and general "encounters" with others. With regard to all of these it appears that gay people routinely experience costs that others do not and are denied benefits available to others.

            In the November, 2008 elections three states in the United States passed measures to bar same-sex marriages. In December, 2008, Pope Benedict in a speech claimed that acceptance of homosexuality was as much a threat to humanity as is global warming. Such negative views and strong resistance to support and recognition of relationships are challenges to self-esteem. John Rawls in his Theory of Justice  claims that self-respect or self-esteem is the most important of the social primary goods (the others include liberties and opportunities, and income and wealth). Benedetto Gui (1994) claims self-esteem is "inside the self." (251)  But we do depend on the respect of others, and Rawls notes "self-respect is reciprocally self-supporting." (179)  Interpersonal relations depend on mutual respect; if I interact with someone I know to believe I am inherently disordered, a threat to others, and "sick," this can be seen as limiting the interpersonal relationship and as itself a relational harm.

            Homosexuality is generally invisible, and heterosexuality is presumed.  So the person must in some way reveal to others that he or she is homosexual.  Gay people who live in societies where there are some who have very negative views of homosexuality must do a great deal of risk assessment in terms of whether to reveal to others that they are homosexual. This complicates many of the interactions with others that are seen as sources of relational goods, such as conversations with neighbors, people with whom one does business, colleagues, etc., since so many conversations focus on one's relationships, social life, etc. If a homosexual person is fearful of being open that person will have to either reveal little, or give incomplete or false information, practices that tend to undermine good relations with others.

            Some occupations may be difficult for gay people, such as the military in the many countries, some governmental positions, or positions in religious institutions with negative views about homosexuals. For gay people uncertain about whether to be open, perhaps being cautious, occupations that involve a great deal of social interaction either on or off the job would be difficult.  If the climate of the workplace is such that the one believes a homosexual orientation must remain hidden, this will limit social interaction and what is revealed to others in ways that are not typical for most. If  there are institutional policies that are negative toward homosexuals or coworkers with negative attitudes, this presents a climate making for costs in terms of dissatisfaction and stress.

            That marriage contributes significantly to greater well-being has been supported by many empirical studies. Ed Diener has noted that in many studies marriage "was the strongest predictor of SWB [subjective well-being] even when education, income and occupational status were controlled. (556).  This is a relational good not available to gay people in many countries. In addition, they are denied the economic, legal and social benefits that come along with marriage.

            As investigators study well-being and interpersonal relations in the economic sphere, it would be interesting and useful if studies could be designed to take into account the effect of being a member of an invisible minority such as this.

            There are some relatively clear policy implications that follow. At the level of businesses and institutions clear, well-known policies opposing discrimination against gay people and establishing an institutional climate that encourages homosexuals to be open would enhance relational goods and well-being.  At the legislative level, laws and governmental policies opposing discrimination, and making same-sex marriage available, or at the very least some type of civil union with equivalent benefits, would also help make available relational goods that are currently limited for gay people and enhance their well-being.

Works Cited in This Abstract

Diener, Ed. (1984), "Subjective Well-Being," Psychological Bulletin 95:3, pp. 542-575.

Gui, Benedetto (1994) "Interpersonal Relations: A Disregarded Theme in the Debate on Ethics and Economics," in Ethics and Economic Affairs, A. Lewis and K-E Wärneryd, eds. (London: Routledge).

Rawls, John (1971) A Theory of Justice, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press).